A New Book Explains the Delay in Hiring Women as Astronauts

Find out how NASA’s astronaut selection process has evolved.
 

In her new book, On a Mission: The Smithsonian History of US Women Astronauts, Valerie Neal confirms what we’ve known all along: Astronauts—whether men or women, civilian or military—are extremely high achievers, often earning multiple advanced degrees in science, engineering, medicine, or mathematics. These accomplishments are considered requirements for the job, and yet NASA did not permit impressively credentialed women into the astronaut corps until 1978 (more than 15 years after Alan Shepard launched into space). Sally Ride became the first American woman in space on June 18, 1983. Since then, 60 more American women have traveled to space as astronauts. Neal, a curator emerita from the National Air and Space Museum, offers a culturally insightful history of the experiences of these women astronauts, the challenges they’ve faced, and their distinctive stories. Her book makes a convincing case for the full participation of women in space, so much so that they don’t want to be referred to as “female astronauts” or “women astronauts.” They don’t consider themselves an astronaut subset—they are simply “astronauts.” Neal was recently interviewed by Air & Space Quarterly’s senior editor Diane Tedeschi.

ASQ: NASA’s first women astronauts—the class of 1978—felt that they could not fail. How did they handle the pressure?

Valerie Neal: The primary way they handled the pressure was to do the work without asking for or accepting any deference as females. They were insistent that they be treated no differently than the males and they wanted to be seen as “one of the guys.” To make the point, they decided to dress in khaki pants and polo shirts like the men, and they generally avoided calling attention to themselves as women—avoiding dresses, makeup, nail polish, etc.—basically suppressing their femininity in the work environment. They studied hard, practiced hard, worked hard to improve any skills they needed, and never complained or asked for any concessions. Everyone—women and men—went through the same training and received the same technical assignments and opportunities; quite naturally some astronauts excelled at one task or another, but everyone had the same chances to prove themselves.

Why was Sally Ride selected to be the first American woman in space?

No revealing records have surfaced of the actual decision, but speculation and anecdotal observations by contemporaries shed credible light on the question. By most accounts, Sally Ride and Judy Resnik were contenders to fly first, based on their early assignments to help develop and test the remote manipulator system (robotic arm) to be used on certain space shuttle missions. Both were confirmed workaholics and spent many hours mastering those skills. Ride was then the first woman chosen to be a CapCom (communicating with the orbiting crew from a console in the Mission Control Center), an experience that most astronauts describe as the best job, almost like flying a mission in space, so closely are CapComs involved in everything happening in orbit.

Ride’s peers perceived that she was on a fast track to a flight assignment. She was also known for the composure she had developed as a competitive athlete, nationally and at the collegiate level; she was accustomed to pressure and attention. Although she didn’t welcome media attention, she managed to handle it with aplomb and without missteps. Ride and Resnik probably were closely ranked in technical skills, but Ride may have had a slight edge in personality and composure. The decision-makers were aware that the United States’ first woman in space would be subject to overwhelming media interest and cultural pressure to be perfect. Ride flew first and Resnik flew next.

You write: “NASA didn’t discriminate, but individuals did.” Can you elaborate?

That was an observation by Dr. Carolyn Huntoon—a scientist and the highest-ranking woman at Johnson Space Center at the time—who became a mentor to the young women astronauts. Although NASA had made it clear that women and minorities were to be welcomed, some people had never worked with such professionals before and they had doubts about their abilities. Inevitably there were comments and reservations about some of the newcomers. Were they really qualified? Did they have the “right stuff”? Huntoon said that changing attitudes was the hardest task at first. But once women and African Americans demonstrated that they could do the jobs as well as anyone—and demonstrated their ability to fit in—most individual resistance evaporated within a year or two.

Would you describe NASA as a meritocracy?

That is a tricky question if looking at the Astronaut Office in the 1980s. Clearly, the astronauts all arrived with stellar education, experience, skills and abilities, and character. They all had demonstrated merit. That may have left little margin for fine differences in merit and an opening for other considerations to come into play. It is well-known that the director of flight operations in the 1980s and 1990s, George Abbey, had primary influence in astronauts’ work assignments and crew selections. He attracted a following of military astronauts, especially those from the U.S. Navy, who hung out with him and served as his aides. Some of these acolytes were tapped for key positions and early flights. The early women didn’t want to play that game, but they maintained good relationships with Abbey professionally, and he did ensure that all were assigned to missions. Some thought he took an almost paternal interest in their success, and no one reported feeling marginalized when surprises, such as pregnancy, meant adjustments to their flight status.

NASA’s initial requirement that astronauts be military pilots prevented women from even being considered for spaceflight, until eventually women could qualify as non-pilot mission specialists. Eileen Collins, a U.S. Air Force pilot, was the first female space shuttle pilot and mission commander. Was this a watershed moment for NASA?

Collins’ selection as the first woman designated as a pilot astronaut was certainly heralded at the time—and every time she flew. All the women before her were mission specialists. Until she came to NASA in 1990, it was not possible for a woman to gain sufficient military aviation and test pilot experience. She broke the last barrier to being a spacecraft pilot. Four years later, Pamela Melroy and Susan Still (Kilrain) were also selected as pilot astronauts. Having earned the same military rank as the male pilots and qualified to pilot and command space shuttle missions, these three women were a significant and respected presence in the astronaut hierarchy.

Anna Fisher rearranged her wedding to accommodate being interviewed by NASA as part of the astronaut selection process. What is it about being an astronaut that leads people to make so many sacrifices?

Many of the women shared a desire to meet the highest challenge they could imagine and be part of something greater than individual ambition. Spaceflight wasn’t just an adventure; it was a calling to be an explorer, to expand knowledge and advance progress, to take humanity beyond our limits. It was hard, dangerous, demanding, exciting, and fulfilling. They enjoyed working with so many brilliant, dedicated colleagues. Spaceflight stretched them to exceed their own limits and contribute to the human legacy of discovery. On a lighter note, Sally Ride and others have remarked that being an astronaut was the most fun they ever had or will have! 

Has NASA ever—formally or informally—acknowledged that it waited longer than it should have to admit women as astronauts?

I don’t know. In my research, I came to realize that NASA could have changed its policy earlier when it recruited scientists and engineers who were not pilots in 1964 and 1967. Had NASA included women in those recruitments and selections, we would have seen women astronauts at least 10 years sooner. A woman might even have been assigned to a Skylab crew, although a mixed-sex crew in close quarters was then unthinkable. 

Between 1970 and 1975, NASA gained some experience with women in astronaut roles during “analog missions” that were patterned on space missions but carried out on Earth. One was underwater, when five marine scientist-aquanauts made up the only all-woman crew in the Tektite II research program undertaken by the U.S. Navy, NOAA, NASA, the Smithsonian, and other participants in 1970 (before Skylab). All crews in the series of missions were closely monitored during multi-week expeditions in an underwater research habitat that was much like a space station. The crew of women performed quite productively and had no problems with isolation, confinement, attitude, behavior, or motivation—demonstrating to NASA’s human performance team that they could do the job just as well as men. In 1974 (after Skylab), another all-woman crew of four scientists carried out a week-long simulation of a scientific research mission in a laboratory designed for spaceflight, again demonstrating that women had no problems carrying out the tasks, resolving problems, and getting along together. NASA had the results of these simulated missions some time before officially deciding to include women in recruiting astronauts for the space shuttle era. It isn’t clear whether these now largely forgotten projects gave NASA confidence to welcome women as astronauts.

This article, originally titled "The Definition of an Astronaut," is from the Fall 2025 issue of Air & Space Quarterly, the National Air and Space Museum's signature magazine that explores topics in aviation and space, from the earliest moments of flight to today. Explore the full issue.

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